The market for functional mushrooms continues to expand rapidly, with increasing demand for ingredients such as lion’s mane, reishi and cordyceps in supplements, foods and beverages. 

To support this growth, US-based ingredient supplier M2 Ingredients has opened a new Center of Innovation dedicated to developing mushroom-based consumer products.

The facility brings together expertise in cultivation, extraction and formulation, helping brands overcome challenges such as flavour integration, solubility and product stability. By bridging the gap between mushroom cultivation and food technology, the center aims to accelerate the development of new functional mushroom products.

Source: Nutraceutical Business Review

Causal Organism

Several strains of Trichoderma spp. have been associated with the commercial production of A. bisporus. Some are found as a weed or indicator mold that signals a composting or casing pH problem (Wuest, 1982). In the late 1980s, a new, more pathogenic strain was reported in Ireland and the UK, Trichoderma harzianum (Th2 and Th4).  During the 1990s, it spread to Canada and the United States and eventually has been found worldwide in many mushroom-growing operations, and is now classified as Trichoderma aggressivum f. aggressivum (Ta2). This aggressive strain causes the disease known as Trichoderma Green Mold. This pathogenic strain has been found only on mushroom farms. Trichoderma Green Mold spreads throughout mushroom crops and farms through vegetative growth and the production of conidiospores.

Signs and Symptoms

Trichoderma mycelium grows as a grayish color and then changes to white, becoming very dense. Growth during the spawn growing is difficult to discern from the mushroom mycelium.  Once it begins to form spores, it turns dark green (Figure 1).  Green Mold mycelium grows in the substrate, and the casing aggressively competes with the mushroom mycelium. Often, little to no mushroom mycelium is found in areas heavily colonized with Trichoderma.

Other Trichoderma species will not cause the disease and only through extensive taxonomic examination or with PCR can they be differentiated from Ta2.  However, if Green Mold rapidly grows across the growing surface or is found in the compost below, it is most likely the aggressive Trichoderma Green Mold, Ta2.  Another sign of Ta2 infestation is the presence of pygmy mites, though this is not always true, as they feed on other fungal molds that grow in the mushroom substrate.

The mechanism of pathogenesis of Trichoderma Green Mold on mushrooms is not completely known.  Some Trichoderma spp. produce toxic metabolites that inhibit the growth of other organisms, and some species can parasitize the mycelium directly.  Most evidence so far suggests that Ta2 produces metabolites that inhibit the growth of A. bisporus (Mumpuni, et al., 1998, Krupke, et al., 2003). Electron microscopic observations of the interaction between Green Mold and mushroom mycelium did not show any obvious pathogenicity (Anderson, et al., 2001).

Disease Development

Disease severity or timing of the disease signs and symptoms on a farm may be related to several different circumstances or combinations of these factors. The number of spores and the timing of infection determine when Trichoderma Green Mold will first appear in a crop. An early infestation and/or a high spore load at spawning will result in early signs of the disease, and the severity will most likely be serious. Whereas a later infestation, as before or at casing or a low spore load, will result in the disease developing at or after 1^st break and usually with less severity.

Observations made over the years at farms in Pennsylvania and elsewhere have suggested that certain mushroom composting (Phase I and/or Phase II) conditions were often associated with Trichoderma Green Mold disease development.  The occurrence of Trichoderma in farms with high sanitation levels appears to be associated with compost that is not nutritionally selective for the mushroom mycelium. Wet compost, which was poorly aerated during Phase I and/or Phase II, is often associated with increased disease severity or incidence on the farms.  Both H. Grogan (personal communication) and Beyer (2008) reported that compost prepared under low-oxygen conditions was more susceptible to disease development.  Under these low-oxygen, or anaerobic, conditions, bacteria produce organic acids, which may persist during the substrate preparation process and remain residual after it, when the mycelium of A. bisporus is seeded into the substrate.  It has been reported how organic acids encourage the growth of T. aggressivum (Figure 2). 

Therefore, the compost's susceptibility and spore load may determine when the disease develops and how severe it may be. Figure 3 shows the relationship between spore load and the susceptibility of compost. So, a well-conditioned substrate with proper moisture may be less susceptible, but with a high spore load at infection, the disease could develop relatively early, with possible mild to high severity.  That same scenario may occur with a low spore load infecting a highly susceptible compost.

The spawn grains also play an important role in the initial infection of a crop.  The grain carrying the mushroom mycelium appears to be a good source of food or may stimulate Trichoderma spore germination. Protecting the spawn grain with fungicide or using a non-grain spawn reduces the early disease development and severity.

Trichoderma spores introduced onto a fully colonized substrate tend not to cause serious disease.  However, bulk spawn run compost (Phase III compost) that is broken up when filling a truck or when placed on farm shelves can be very susceptible to Trichoderma infection.  It is assumed that the sugars and carbohydrates within the mushroom mycelium are released when it is broken up, and that these carbohydrates are a readily available source of food for Trichoderma.

Once Trichoderma mycelium begins to grow, it will quickly spread through the compost and casing, and the A. bisporus mycelium will no longer be able to grow there. Trichoderma will spread across the growing surface and continue to sporulate, producing as many as 1,000,000 spores per 1 gram of casing in as little as 24 hours. These spores then serve as inoculum for the next crop or for new rooms.

Control

Disease control depends primarily on reducing or eliminating spores through sanitation and vector control. Trichoderma spores are vectored around the farm in many ways. The spores can adhere to employees, their clothing, and the farm's equipment. Flies, mites, and rodents can also spread the spores. Mites are good secondary vectors because they have specialized structures, called sporangia, that carry and spread spores.

Wooden shelves and trays in crops heavily infested with Trichoderma Green Mold can become impregnated with the Trichoderma mycelium, (Figure 4).  If post-crop steaming and Phase II pasteurization are insufficient, that mycelium will be a source of infection in the subsequent crop planted in that room. In addition, Trichoderma spores may survive lower temperatures or shorter post-crop steaming times and infest subsequent crops. A proper Phase II pasteurization with good ammonia concentrations in the air and substrate appears to be effective in killing the spores.

Using a mapping technique to monitor Trichoderma spots after casing through cropping may help determine the source of infection. By monitoring the number and location of the infections, it may be possible to detect a pattern or time of infection.  Improperly sanitized spawning equipment may show up if the disease has its highest incidence in the area where the spawning crew starts or in the first trays to be spawned. Mapping the movement of compost from a bulk tunnel into the farm's shelves may also reveal a pattern of infection during tunnel spawning (Obrien et al., 2017). High Trichoderma counts in rooms or areas with the highest fly populations could indicate that spores are entering with flies (Coles et al. 2021). It has also been reported that shelves filled by hand had a higher incidence of Trichoderma in the lower beds than rooms filled with nets (Coles et al., 2024).  They related this pattern to employees having to step from the floor into the lowest bed while filling it.

Equipment and personnel from infested crops should be prevented from entering the spawning or casing areas during those operations. Additional steps, such as issuing new uniforms daily to spawning personnel and separating cafeterias and break rooms for employees working in the spawning and casing areas, are effective.

Although Trichoderma spores are not easily airborne, dust particles and flies can carry them, so filtration and air pressure during the spawning and casing operations are critical. Maintaining positive pressure in a spawning area or room would help reduce the risk of contaminants from vectors contaminating a fresh substrate.

To reduce the spread of spores within an infected crop, cover all spots of Trichoderma with either salt, hydrated lime, gypsum, or alcohol.  Whatever is used should cover several inches beyond the infected area.  Usually, the substrate under the infected area is greater than what is seen on the casing, so extending the covering material beyond what is seen will help prevent new areas from developing from the infected substrate below.

Existing registered chemical fungicides are ineffective in reducing or eliminating actively growing Trichoderma mycelium once it is established in the compost or casing.  Control is primarily good composting, complete pasteurization, a complete sanitation program, especially at spawning, and efficient post-crop steaming procedures. If this disease gets out of control, it is better to steam off the crop early to reduce the spore inoculum that could spread to subsequent crops.

References

Anderson, M. G., D. M. Beyer, and P. J. Wuest. 2001. “Yield Comparison of Hybrid Agaricus Mushroom Strains for Resistance to Trichoderma Green Mold.” Plant Disease 85: 731–734.

Beyer, D., K. Paley, J. Kremser, and J. Pecchia. 2008. “Influence of Organic Acids on the Growth and Development of Trichoderma aggressivum, a Pathogen of Agaricus bisporus.” Pages 540–555 in Science and Cultivation of Edible and Medicinal Fungi: Mushroom Science 17, edited by Van Gruening. Pretoria, South Africa: South African Mushroom Farmers Association. Proceedings of the 17th International Congress, Cape Town, South Africa, May 20–24 (CD-ROM).

Coles, Phillip S., Maria Mazin, and Galina Nogin. 2021. “The Association Between Mushroom Sciarid Flies, Cultural Techniques, and Green Mold Disease Incidence on Commercial Mushroom Farms.” Journal of Economic Entomology 114 (2): 555–559. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/toaa322.

Coles, Phillip S., Milton E. McGiffen Jr., Huaying Xu, and Moises Frutos. 2024. “Compost Filling Methods Affect Green Mold Disease Incidence in Commercial Mushrooms.” Plant Disease 108 (3): 666–670. https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS-06-23-1101-RE.

Krupke, Oliver Albert, Alan J. Castle, and Danny Lee Rinker. 2003. “The North American Mushroom Competitor, Trichoderma aggressivum f. aggressivum, Produces Antifungal Compounds in Mushroom Compost That Inhibit Mycelial Growth of the Commercial Mushroom Agaricus bisporus.” Mycological Research 107 (12): 1467–1475.

Mumpuni, A., H. S. S. Sharma, and A. E. Brown. 1998. “Effect of Metabolites Produced by Trichoderma harzianum Biotypes and Agaricus bisporus on Their Respective Growth Radii in Culture.” Applied and Environmental Microbiology 64 (12): 5053–5056. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.64.12.5053-5056.1998.

O’Brien, M., K. Kavanagh, and H. Grogan. 2017. “Detection of Trichoderma aggressivum in Bulk Phase III Substrate and the Effect of T. aggressivum Inoculum, Supplementation and Substrate-Mixing on Agaricus bisporus Yields.” European Journal of Plant Pathology 147 (1): 199–209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10658-016-0992-9.

Wuest, Paul J., and Glenn D. Bengtson, eds. 1982. Penn State Handbook for Commercial Mushroom Growers: A Compendium of Scientific and Technical Information Useful to Mushroom Farmers. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University, College of Agricultural Sciences.

By Stefan Glibetic, Founder of Mycionics

For years, agricultural robotics was something the industry believed was just around the corner. Demonstrations appeared at trade shows, prototypes showed promising results, and early pilot projects hinted at what might eventually be possible. But widespread adoption remained limited.

Today, that situation is changing.

According to Stefan Glibetic, founder of Mycionics, the industry is now experiencing a rare convergence of forces that is pushing agricultural robotics from experimentation into real deployment. “We are experiencing a perfect storm where the technology is ready, the market is primed, and industry pressure is forcing farms to take calculated risks on automation.”

Technology has matured. Labour pressures continue to intensify. And the economics of automation are starting to make sense for real farms. Together, these factors are creating a moment that many growers feel is fundamentally different from anything the industry has seen before.

From fragile prototypes to farm-ready robotics

Only a few years ago, many agricultural robots struggled to survive outside controlled demonstrations. Machines could scan crops or perform basic harvesting tasks, but they were often too fragile or too complex to operate reliably in real production environments.

Mushroom farms are particularly demanding environments. High humidity, fluctuating temperatures and constant production pressure quickly expose weaknesses in delicate electronics and mechanical systems.

One of the biggest breakthroughs in recent years was not a new algorithm or a faster robot arm, but a shift in design philosophy. “The real breakthrough was making robotics farm-friendly. The machines had to survive real mushroom farms.”

Instead of trying to replicate every aspect of human behaviour in a single machine, robotics developers began focusing on systems that could perform specific tasks reliably within the realities of farm operations.

As a result, modern robotic systems are increasingly modular, rugged and easier for farm staff to maintain themselves. At the same time, they are being designed to integrate with both existing infrastructures and new facilities built specifically with automation in mind.

Early adopters also played a crucial role in this transition. A small group of growers were willing to invest in the technology before it was fully mature, helping developers refine their systems and prove that robotic harvesting could operate at real production speeds.

As those systems began working reliably on farms, skepticism in the industry gradually faded.

Labour pressure is reshaping the industry

Labour shortages are often described as the main driver behind agricultural automation. In reality, the problem runs deeper than a simple shortage of workers.

Mushroom harvesting is physically demanding work. Workers spend long hours bending over beds, harvesting quickly while maintaining quality, often in environments with high humidity and fluctuating temperatures. The work places strain on the body and requires sustained concentration.

As wages rise and workforce stability becomes less predictable, growers are facing a structural challenge. “The labour model itself is becoming unstable,” says Glibetic. “The margins of mushroom production simply cannot keep up with continuously rising labour costs for a job that fewer people want to do.”

Automation offers a different approach. Rather than eliminating human labour entirely, robotics allows farms to redistribute work.

Robots can perform repetitive tasks such as harvesting similar-sized mushrooms continuously and consistently. Human workers can then focus on tasks that require judgement, adaptability and crop knowledge, such as thinning, crop separation and yield optimisation.

Why mushrooms may lead the automation shift

Among agricultural sectors, mushroom production may be particularly well suited for early robotics adoption.

Unlike many crops, mushrooms are grown indoors and produced year-round. Farms operate twenty-four hours a day across all seasons, allowing robotic systems to be used continuously and improving their economic return.

In addition, many mushroom farms already operate within highly structured infrastructures. Dutch aluminium shelving systems, hydraulic lorries and modern drawer-based production systems provide the environmental consistency that robotics requires.

The greatest technological challenge was the crop itself.

Agaricus mushrooms are extremely delicate. Developing vision systems capable of identifying harvest-ready mushrooms and robotic grippers capable of harvesting them without bruising the crop required years of development.

Solving that challenge has made the mushroom industry an important proving ground for agricultural robotics.

Rethinking how farms approach automation

Even when the technology works, adopting robotics requires farms to rethink how their operations are organised.

One common mistake is attempting to fit robotics into existing workflows without adapting the farm environment.

“Automation works best when farms adapt their processes to the strengths of the machines,” says Glibetic. “Trying to force robotics into legacy workflows often creates unnecessary complexity.”

Another misconception is the idea that automation must replace all manual labour immediately.

In practice, many successful deployments start by automating smaller parts of the harvesting process and gradually expanding over time. This step-by-step approach allows farms to build experience while reducing operational risk.

Infrastructure also plays an important role. Older wooden tray systems were never designed with automation in mind. Modern infrastructures such as aluminium shelving or drawer systems allow robotics to operate more efficiently and at lower cost.

The risk of waiting

For growers considering automation, timing is becoming increasingly important.

Historically, technological transitions tend to reward early adopters. Farms that implement automation earlier often gain productivity advantages that translate into stronger margins and greater capacity to reinvest in further improvements.

“In many technology revolutions, the first twenty percent of adopters capture the majority of the long-term value,” says Glibetic.

Early adopters benefit from faster harvesting, improved crop quality and stronger operational efficiency. These advantages generate additional capital that can be reinvested into expansion and technology upgrades.

At the same time, waiting too long may create new challenges. As demand for robotics increases, supply chains for specialised equipment and farm infrastructure may become constrained.

Growers who delay adoption until automation is proven everywhere may find themselves competing for limited installation capacity.

The next phase: data and crop intelligence

Over the next three to five years, automation in mushroom harvesting is likely to expand rapidly, although the pace will vary between farm types.

Newly built drawer farms designed specifically for automation may operate with high levels of robotic harvesting, cutting, packing and conveyance. Existing shelving farms will likely rely more on hybrid systems where robotics and human labour continue to work alongside each other.

But according to Glibetic, the most transformative impact of robotics may not come from the machines themselves. “Robotics doesn’t just harvest mushrooms. It creates ground-truth data about every crop.”

For the first time, farms will be able to capture precise data about mushroom growth, harvest timing and environmental conditions across entire production cycles.

Until now, much of the information flowing through the mushroom industry has been indirect or incomplete. Robotics has the potential to create a closed feedback loop between growers, spawn producers and compost suppliers.

That data could unlock significant improvements in genetics, compost formulation and cultivation strategies.

And if those systems mature as expected, the impact could be substantial.

Glibetic believes the industry has not yet come close to reaching the full biological potential of the Agaricus crop. With better data and improved feedback loops across the supply chain, yield improvements of 20 to 30 percent may become achievable.

If that happens, the robotics transition in mushroom farming will be about more than automation alone. It could fundamentally reshape how the crop is grown and how the industry measures productivity in the years ahead.

If you want to learn more, feel free to contact Stefan Glibetic via This email address is being protected from spambots. You need JavaScript enabled to view it. 

What’s moving the mushroom industry right now?

The mushroom sector continues to evolve at pace. Automation, labour availability and cost efficiency remain dominant themes, while growers balance innovation with reliability on the farm floor.

Below are a few developments worth watching.

1. Automation: progress, but not autonomy

Robotics in mushroom harvesting keep improving, yet fully autonomous solutions are still limited in peak and variable flush conditions. As a result, more growers are exploring hybrid harvesting models, where technology supports – rather than replaces – skilled labour. The focus is shifting from “full automation” to consistency, ergonomics and uptime.

2. Labour strategy is becoming a technical issue

Labour shortages are no longer just an HR concern. Growers are increasingly looking at technical solutions to:

• reduce physical strain
• stabilise output quality
• make harvesting work more predictable

This is influencing investment decisions in equipment, layout and workflow design.

3. Data-driven growing gains traction

Yield tracking, flush performance analysis and real-time monitoring are becoming standard tools for larger operations. What stands out: growers are less interested in dashboards, and more in actionable insights that support daily decision-making on the farm.

4. Sustainability: from ambition to optimisation

Rather than big sustainability claims, the conversation is moving toward practical optimisation:

• energy efficiency per kg
• smarter use of substrates
• longer equipment lifecycles

Incremental improvements are proving more impactful than radical overhauls.

What to watch next

In the coming months, expect more discussion around:

• hybrid harvesting as a structural solution
• the ROI of semi-automation
• technology that adapts to biological variability, instead of forcing uniformity

We’ll continue to follow these developments closely and share insights that matter to growers, farm managers and technology partners.


Published by Mushroom Matter: connecting the global mushroom community through insight, innovation, and inspiration

GrowTime recently showcased its high-performance automation solutions during the Umdis mushroom cultivation course at the Marczak mushroom farm in Poland.

Participants could see a presentation of GrowTime lorries equipped with the MycoSense Spotlight system working in real conditions on the farm.

A major highlight was the “smart speed control” feature—an intelligent speed management solution developed through close collaboration between the MycoSense and GrowTime teams. This kind of automation is designed to boost productivity while keeping daily operations more predictable and easier to manage.

It also supports a higher level of workplace safety and helps extend equipment durability in demanding farm environments. With better control over production processes, farms can improve efficiency and see a measurable impact on profitability.

Read the full recap and watch the event video in the article here.

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As a mushroom and compost consultant, I receive more questions from clients who have already searched for answers using ChatGPT. Often, they are not looking for a new solution, but for verification of what they have found online. This already shows how widely AI tools are being used in our industry. I use ChatGPT myself on a regular basis. It helps me write reports and articles that are clearer and easier to read, and its English is certainly better than my own “Dunglish” (20% Dutch, 80% English).

For collecting information about composting or growing issues, ChatGPT often provides useful insights. The answers are not always fully correct or directly applicable in practice, but they usually point in the right direction and help identify which area needs further investigation.

Modern mushroom production requires precise control of both composting and growing processes. Small variations in raw materials, fermentation, climate, or handling can have a significant impact on yield and quality.
While practical experience and on-site expertise remain essential, digital tools such as ChatGPT can support growers and consultants with faster analysis and better-structured decision-making. In cooperation with a compost and growing consultant, ChatGPT functions mainly as a knowledge-management and support tool. Combined with biological understanding and field experience, this approach can help improve compost consistency, crop stability, and overall production results.

Total Mushroom Service
Jeroen van lier
( 80%) Chat GPT (20%)