Causal Organism

Several strains of Trichoderma spp. have been associated with the commercial production of A. bisporus. Some are found as a weed or indicator mold that signals a composting or casing pH problem (Wuest, 1982). In the late 1980s, a new, more pathogenic strain was reported in Ireland and the UK, Trichoderma harzianum (Th2 and Th4).  During the 1990s, it spread to Canada and the United States and eventually has been found worldwide in many mushroom-growing operations, and is now classified as Trichoderma aggressivum f. aggressivum (Ta2). This aggressive strain causes the disease known as Trichoderma Green Mold. This pathogenic strain has been found only on mushroom farms. Trichoderma Green Mold spreads throughout mushroom crops and farms through vegetative growth and the production of conidiospores.

Signs and Symptoms

Trichoderma mycelium grows as a grayish color and then changes to white, becoming very dense. Growth during the spawn growing is difficult to discern from the mushroom mycelium.  Once it begins to form spores, it turns dark green (Figure 1).  Green Mold mycelium grows in the substrate, and the casing aggressively competes with the mushroom mycelium. Often, little to no mushroom mycelium is found in areas heavily colonized with Trichoderma.

Other Trichoderma species will not cause the disease and only through extensive taxonomic examination or with PCR can they be differentiated from Ta2.  However, if Green Mold rapidly grows across the growing surface or is found in the compost below, it is most likely the aggressive Trichoderma Green Mold, Ta2.  Another sign of Ta2 infestation is the presence of pygmy mites, though this is not always true, as they feed on other fungal molds that grow in the mushroom substrate.

The mechanism of pathogenesis of Trichoderma Green Mold on mushrooms is not completely known.  Some Trichoderma spp. produce toxic metabolites that inhibit the growth of other organisms, and some species can parasitize the mycelium directly.  Most evidence so far suggests that Ta2 produces metabolites that inhibit the growth of A. bisporus (Mumpuni, et al., 1998, Krupke, et al., 2003). Electron microscopic observations of the interaction between Green Mold and mushroom mycelium did not show any obvious pathogenicity (Anderson, et al., 2001).

Disease Development

Disease severity or timing of the disease signs and symptoms on a farm may be related to several different circumstances or combinations of these factors. The number of spores and the timing of infection determine when Trichoderma Green Mold will first appear in a crop. An early infestation and/or a high spore load at spawning will result in early signs of the disease, and the severity will most likely be serious. Whereas a later infestation, as before or at casing or a low spore load, will result in the disease developing at or after 1^st break and usually with less severity.

Observations made over the years at farms in Pennsylvania and elsewhere have suggested that certain mushroom composting (Phase I and/or Phase II) conditions were often associated with Trichoderma Green Mold disease development.  The occurrence of Trichoderma in farms with high sanitation levels appears to be associated with compost that is not nutritionally selective for the mushroom mycelium. Wet compost, which was poorly aerated during Phase I and/or Phase II, is often associated with increased disease severity or incidence on the farms.  Both H. Grogan (personal communication) and Beyer (2008) reported that compost prepared under low-oxygen conditions was more susceptible to disease development.  Under these low-oxygen, or anaerobic, conditions, bacteria produce organic acids, which may persist during the substrate preparation process and remain residual after it, when the mycelium of A. bisporus is seeded into the substrate.  It has been reported how organic acids encourage the growth of T. aggressivum (Figure 2). 

Therefore, the compost's susceptibility and spore load may determine when the disease develops and how severe it may be. Figure 3 shows the relationship between spore load and the susceptibility of compost. So, a well-conditioned substrate with proper moisture may be less susceptible, but with a high spore load at infection, the disease could develop relatively early, with possible mild to high severity.  That same scenario may occur with a low spore load infecting a highly susceptible compost.

The spawn grains also play an important role in the initial infection of a crop.  The grain carrying the mushroom mycelium appears to be a good source of food or may stimulate Trichoderma spore germination. Protecting the spawn grain with fungicide or using a non-grain spawn reduces the early disease development and severity.

Trichoderma spores introduced onto a fully colonized substrate tend not to cause serious disease.  However, bulk spawn run compost (Phase III compost) that is broken up when filling a truck or when placed on farm shelves can be very susceptible to Trichoderma infection.  It is assumed that the sugars and carbohydrates within the mushroom mycelium are released when it is broken up, and that these carbohydrates are a readily available source of food for Trichoderma.

Once Trichoderma mycelium begins to grow, it will quickly spread through the compost and casing, and the A. bisporus mycelium will no longer be able to grow there. Trichoderma will spread across the growing surface and continue to sporulate, producing as many as 1,000,000 spores per 1 gram of casing in as little as 24 hours. These spores then serve as inoculum for the next crop or for new rooms.

Control

Disease control depends primarily on reducing or eliminating spores through sanitation and vector control. Trichoderma spores are vectored around the farm in many ways. The spores can adhere to employees, their clothing, and the farm's equipment. Flies, mites, and rodents can also spread the spores. Mites are good secondary vectors because they have specialized structures, called sporangia, that carry and spread spores.

Wooden shelves and trays in crops heavily infested with Trichoderma Green Mold can become impregnated with the Trichoderma mycelium, (Figure 4).  If post-crop steaming and Phase II pasteurization are insufficient, that mycelium will be a source of infection in the subsequent crop planted in that room. In addition, Trichoderma spores may survive lower temperatures or shorter post-crop steaming times and infest subsequent crops. A proper Phase II pasteurization with good ammonia concentrations in the air and substrate appears to be effective in killing the spores.

Using a mapping technique to monitor Trichoderma spots after casing through cropping may help determine the source of infection. By monitoring the number and location of the infections, it may be possible to detect a pattern or time of infection.  Improperly sanitized spawning equipment may show up if the disease has its highest incidence in the area where the spawning crew starts or in the first trays to be spawned. Mapping the movement of compost from a bulk tunnel into the farm's shelves may also reveal a pattern of infection during tunnel spawning (Obrien et al., 2017). High Trichoderma counts in rooms or areas with the highest fly populations could indicate that spores are entering with flies (Coles et al. 2021). It has also been reported that shelves filled by hand had a higher incidence of Trichoderma in the lower beds than rooms filled with nets (Coles et al., 2024).  They related this pattern to employees having to step from the floor into the lowest bed while filling it.

Equipment and personnel from infested crops should be prevented from entering the spawning or casing areas during those operations. Additional steps, such as issuing new uniforms daily to spawning personnel and separating cafeterias and break rooms for employees working in the spawning and casing areas, are effective.

Although Trichoderma spores are not easily airborne, dust particles and flies can carry them, so filtration and air pressure during the spawning and casing operations are critical. Maintaining positive pressure in a spawning area or room would help reduce the risk of contaminants from vectors contaminating a fresh substrate.

To reduce the spread of spores within an infected crop, cover all spots of Trichoderma with either salt, hydrated lime, gypsum, or alcohol.  Whatever is used should cover several inches beyond the infected area.  Usually, the substrate under the infected area is greater than what is seen on the casing, so extending the covering material beyond what is seen will help prevent new areas from developing from the infected substrate below.

Existing registered chemical fungicides are ineffective in reducing or eliminating actively growing Trichoderma mycelium once it is established in the compost or casing.  Control is primarily good composting, complete pasteurization, a complete sanitation program, especially at spawning, and efficient post-crop steaming procedures. If this disease gets out of control, it is better to steam off the crop early to reduce the spore inoculum that could spread to subsequent crops.

References

Anderson, M. G., D. M. Beyer, and P. J. Wuest. 2001. “Yield Comparison of Hybrid Agaricus Mushroom Strains for Resistance to Trichoderma Green Mold.” Plant Disease 85: 731–734.

Beyer, D., K. Paley, J. Kremser, and J. Pecchia. 2008. “Influence of Organic Acids on the Growth and Development of Trichoderma aggressivum, a Pathogen of Agaricus bisporus.” Pages 540–555 in Science and Cultivation of Edible and Medicinal Fungi: Mushroom Science 17, edited by Van Gruening. Pretoria, South Africa: South African Mushroom Farmers Association. Proceedings of the 17th International Congress, Cape Town, South Africa, May 20–24 (CD-ROM).

Coles, Phillip S., Maria Mazin, and Galina Nogin. 2021. “The Association Between Mushroom Sciarid Flies, Cultural Techniques, and Green Mold Disease Incidence on Commercial Mushroom Farms.” Journal of Economic Entomology 114 (2): 555–559. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/toaa322.

Coles, Phillip S., Milton E. McGiffen Jr., Huaying Xu, and Moises Frutos. 2024. “Compost Filling Methods Affect Green Mold Disease Incidence in Commercial Mushrooms.” Plant Disease 108 (3): 666–670. https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS-06-23-1101-RE.

Krupke, Oliver Albert, Alan J. Castle, and Danny Lee Rinker. 2003. “The North American Mushroom Competitor, Trichoderma aggressivum f. aggressivum, Produces Antifungal Compounds in Mushroom Compost That Inhibit Mycelial Growth of the Commercial Mushroom Agaricus bisporus.” Mycological Research 107 (12): 1467–1475.

Mumpuni, A., H. S. S. Sharma, and A. E. Brown. 1998. “Effect of Metabolites Produced by Trichoderma harzianum Biotypes and Agaricus bisporus on Their Respective Growth Radii in Culture.” Applied and Environmental Microbiology 64 (12): 5053–5056. https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.64.12.5053-5056.1998.

O’Brien, M., K. Kavanagh, and H. Grogan. 2017. “Detection of Trichoderma aggressivum in Bulk Phase III Substrate and the Effect of T. aggressivum Inoculum, Supplementation and Substrate-Mixing on Agaricus bisporus Yields.” European Journal of Plant Pathology 147 (1): 199–209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10658-016-0992-9.

Wuest, Paul J., and Glenn D. Bengtson, eds. 1982. Penn State Handbook for Commercial Mushroom Growers: A Compendium of Scientific and Technical Information Useful to Mushroom Farmers. University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University, College of Agricultural Sciences.

From September 18 to 22, 2023 it's the Fungal Disease Awareness Week.

Many people are affected by fungal diseases at various times in their lives. For example, inhaling mold spores can cause diseases such as histoplasmosis, blastomycosis or valley fever.

Fungal diseases are increasing worldwide. This is due to the increase in the Earth's temperature which can allow infectious fungi in the environment to grow in new areas that were previously too cold. Changes in climate can also cause fungi to evolve, threatening the emergence of new fungal infections. For example, the Candida Auris epidemic (the hospital fungal infection!) would be the first to be caused by climate change. The fungus is known for its extreme resistance, its super-fast spread and the high mortality rate of patients who become infected with it.

Of course, not all molds are poisonous, but some molds are known to be capable of producing toxins (mycotoxins). Eating or inhaling these toxins can lead to a yeast infection.

Despite all we now know about how mold causes diseases, misdiagnoses still occur and can cost lives. Also the fact that people are increasingly becoming resistant, there are only limited available antifungal medications. This means that it is more common that fungal diseases cannot be treated.

This week should ensure that the world population becomes aware of the fact that inhaling or eating mold spores can have fatal consequences.

Source: Mushroom Matter

Lately, several farms have seen some symptoms of virus which means more focus on hygiene is necessary. Hygiene includes all measures aimed at minimizing the risk of disease and pests developing and spreading. The greatest risk of contamination from diseases and pests is at the time of filling and when the harvest starts because from that moment on several people enter the growing rooms, but there are also risks in other parts of the cultivation cycle like during emptying the grow rooms and that got forgotten on many occasions. Much of it is produced by humans and is preventable.

To reduce the chance that a few traces of diseases or insects still survive in the growing rooms after the last harvest day, it is vital to cook out the growing rooms. To ensure that all diseases and pests are killed, it is necessary to heat the entire cultivation room to 70 ° C for 12 hours by means of steam. By entire growing space is meant that the compost also reaches this temperature for 12 hours. Often, out of cost or time savings, it is chosen to shorten the time, or the temperature is kept lower, which has the risk that spores can survive. However, to be sure you kill all spores, 70 °C is the benchmark for 12 hours, especially if there are diseases or pests on your farm.

After cooking out, the new growing cycle starts, so it is important that from this moment on no traces of mushrooms, spores or flies end up in the growing area. This is often neglected during emptying, which means that the usefulness of (costly!!!) cookout has been for nothing. Therefore, when emptying, observe the following rules:

- Make sure that the people who empty the room wear clean clothes and footwear.
- Do not allow unauthorized persons when emptying.
- Always enter the cultivation area to be emptied from the outside, so not from the work corridor.
- If possible, do not pause during emptying, but only when the entire cell is empty, and the large back door is closed.
- Let the people who work at emptying not have breaks in the same area as the harvesters.
- Use only clean and sanitized material.

As soon as the growing room is empty, close the large back door as soon as possible. After this, it is important to start cleaning the growing area, shelving, and all used materials with water as quickly as possible, preferably with high pressure. Replace the spore filters, hang new fly plates to catch the first insects, and the cell is ready to be filled. If necessary, you can still disinfect the cultivation area.

Erik de Groot
Global Agriculture Services
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Phorid larvae (Megaselia halterata) are obligate mycelial feeders therefore, the adult flies are not attracted to oviposit in the compost until after spawning. The up to 6 mm long larvae feed on the growing mushroom mycelium but rarely on the fruiting body itself. They can be distinguished from sciarid larvae by the absence of the black head, and they develop more rapidly into a pupa.

The adult fly can be distinguished from the sciarid fly by the short antennae and by its rapid, jerky, running movement. Adult phorids act as a vector for dry bubble. 75 flies per m2 may already cause an outbreak of the disease. Phorid flies are unable to fly when the temperature falls below 12°C (54°F). In the past they have rarely infected mushroom houses after late fall. As there are now more and more warm days into November, this period is prolonged.

e-nema comes with a solution to control phorids. If you wish to know more, please visit their website.

Lately I am getting a lot of phone calls again about cobweb disease. The growers see the first signs appearing at the end of the first flush and by the time the second flush is starting, the problem practically gets out of control. To beat the problem it is necessary to know where the disease is coming from and how it grows and spreads.

The cobweb mould is a soil born fungus, using a vector (taxi). The vector may be sand, dust, casing soil and all different materials used by the people on the farm. Think of brooms, shovels but also mushroom harvesting equipment. This way the spores of the fungus are transported. But the fungus does not have to reach the state of sporulation to be infectious. If the fungus is damaged is splitters like glass. Small particles of the fungus can regrow fast into a new patch of cobweb again. So only touching the fungus by hand or by watering is enough to spread it like wildfire. It grows best under warm and moist conditions. So to slow it down it will help to lower the RH in the room and to drop the temperature a bit. But it will not stop it.To stop it you will have to find the origin of the infection and stop that. Many of the infections I see at this moment seem to start during the first flush so I immediately look at the harvesting on the farm.

We make sure pickers change the gloves regularly and disinfect the knives every day. The clothes of the pickers have to be changed daily and we look at the logistics of the farm. No one is allowed to move backwards in the schedule. In other words, if you where in a second flush, never go back into the first. For the grower it means a lot of cloth changing. After every check of the rooms. On many farms it is also necessary to look at the handling of the trays. Testing showed that many of the multiple use trays are infected with moulds. Even trays that are claimed to be disinfected. An effective method is to make sure that multiple trays are staying in the room where they are used. So if they are left over after the first flush, leave them in that room and use them in the second flush. If trays are coming out of the room with a possible infection, store them separately. And not in a room with other packaging.

The best way is to carry out the disinfection yourself. Steam the incoming trays properly in a container or a room designed for steaming out. Preferably not in a cookout room because the trays will smell terribly after that. After cooking out one can use a swab test and an agar tray to see if the trays are clean enough to be allowed onto the farm.

So to eliminate this disease make a list of possible infection moments and go through the list one by one. Only this way, by taking out all possible infection points, the disease can be controlled. Because chemical control is almost impossible and most of the times not allowed. And if you see the disease it is already to late to do something. The only thing left at that moment is to cover it widespreaded with salt and to stop watering immediately. And then start eliminating it with all possible measures.

We know most fungi to be beautiful to see and a number of them are also very tasty. But that they can also be deadly proves the discovery of a rare black fungus in patients in India. Black fungus infection (Mucormyosis) has struck in this country.

The infection is caused by various fungi. These so-called mucormycetes grow in the soil, in dirt and on rotting material, including rotting leaves or wood. People get the infection by inhaling the fungal spores that float around in the air and dust. These spores get trapped in the nasal passages and sinuses and that’s what causes the disease.

Not everyone exposed to the spores will get the infection. But the increase in the number of cases in India is probably due to the disease showing up in patients who have had corona and therefore have a less immune system. A connection is also seen with the drugs used to combat Covid-19. People with diabetes would also be extra sensitive to getting the infection.

The disease infects the nerves, brain and lungs. If the fungus spreads to the brain, the risk of death is 50%. Early diagnosis can be a life saver, but even then fighting the infection will be a tough task.